Peace Keeping

                                                                                 Peacekeeping

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United Nations peacekeeping operations are typically designed to oversee the transitions from conflict to peace in states that have been subject to intrastate conflicts. UN Peacekeeping is guided by three basic principles:

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                    1. Consent of the parties

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UN peacekeeping operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties to the conflict. This requires a commitment by the parties to a political process. Their acceptance of a peacekeeping operation provides the UN with the necessary freedom of action, both political and physical, to carry out its mandated tasks.

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In the absence of such consent, a peacekeeping operation risks becoming a party to the conflict; and being drawn towards enforcement action, and away from its fundamental role of keeping the peace.

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The fact that the main parties have given their consent to the deployment of a United Nations peacekeeping operation does not necessarily imply or guarantee that there will also be consent at the local level, particularly if the main parties are internally divided or have weak command and control systems.  Universality of consent becomes even less probable in volatile settings, characterized by the presence of armed groups not under the control of any of the parties, or by the presence of those who seek to undermine the peace process.

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                    2. Impartiality

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Impartiality is crucial to maintaining the consent and cooperation of the main parties, but should not be confused with neutrality or inactivity. United Nations peacekeepers aim to be impartial in their dealings with the parties to the conflict, but not neutral in the execution of their mandate, willing to resort to force where necessary and where it is in their mandate to do so.

 

                   3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate

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UN peacekeeping operations are not an enforcement tool. However, they may use force at the tactical level, with the authorization of the Security Council, if acting in self-defence and defence of the mandate.

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In certain volatile situations, the Security Council has given UN peacekeeping operations “robust” mandates authorizing them to “use all necessary means” to deter forceful attempts to disrupt the political process, protect civilians under imminent threat of physical attack, and/or assist the national authorities in maintaining law and order.

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A UN peacekeeping operation aims to only use force as a measure of last resort. It is usually calibrated in a precise, proportional and appropriate manner, within the principle of the minimum force necessary to achieve the desired effect, while sustaining consent for the mission and its mandate.

 

 

 

                                                                 Aims of Peacekeeping Operations

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Depending on the mandate of the peacekeeping operation and the circumstances under which it is deployed, UN peacekeeping operation aims to resolve intrastate conflicts by undertaking the following measures, using both military and police forces:

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• First and foremost, UN peacekeeping operations attempt to re-establish the rule of law. This often takes the form of strengthening state intuitions such as the police and the court system. Peacekeeping operations undertake training of government officials and rebuilding of infrastructure to facilitate this. Rule of law assistance is based on United Nations standards that reflect applicable international human rights law, international humanitarian law, international criminal law and international refugee law.

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In late 2012, UN rule of law personnel were deployed across 16 peace missions, including approximately:

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• 315 Judicial Affairs Officers

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• 370 Corrections Officers

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• More than 14,000 Police Officers (9.8% Female) and 16,300 Authorized for deployment

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• Electoral assistance is also provided to ensure the transition to a stable democracy. Assistance is usually provided in the following forms:

  • Security: UN uniformed personnel including UN Police and UN Military personnel carry out patrols to ensure voters can exercise their democratic right without fear of violence;

  • Technical advice on the reform of electoral laws and the establishment of procedures to ensure the vote is safeguarded;

  • Logistical support such as distribution of ballot materials;

  • Public information and voter education assistance through a variety of UN communication channels available to the field missions, including radio. 

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• UN peacekeeping also aims to provide for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of warring parties:

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• Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives and light and heavy weapons from combatants and often from the civilian population.

 

• Demobilization is the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces and groups, including a phase of “reinsertion” which provides short-term assistance to ex-combatants.

 

• Reintegration is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain sustainable employment and income. It is a political, social and economic process with an open time-frame, primarily taking place in communities at the local level.

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                                     Challenges to UN Peacekeeping 

 

Lack of Resources

UN Peacekeeping missions are funded by member states and the resources devoted to these operation come almost exclusively from member states. UN peacekeeping operations have always been notoriously underfunded, limiting the state building measures that can be carried out in order to prevent the re-emergence of conflict. This can be seen in the UN mission in Mali which is currently experiencing a funding shortfall of $300 million. In September 2013, it was reported that 160 UN Peacekeepers from Chad had deserted their posts claiming they had not been paid.

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Member states are sometimes reluctant to provide troops dispatched on peacekeeping operation with adequate equipment or training. UN peacekeepers dispatched from some African Union states to Sudan notoriously arrived minus their equipment, in the expectation they would be armed by the UN. In Mali, serious concerns have been raised about the human rights training provided to troops, particularly those from Chad, and the discipline of the UN forces based there. These concerns were brought to four by accusations that four UN peacekeepers were involved in the rape of woman in Mali in September 2013.

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A lack of resources and training can undermine the legitimacy of UN peacekeeping forces which may then encounter hostility from the local population, further complicating efforts to maintain security and engage in state building efforts.

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Sovereignty

Sovereignty can act as an impediment to peacekeeping operation. States can use their sovereignty to prevent the deployment of peacekeeping forces within their borders as it is often seen as acknowledging weakness and the inability of the state to maintain control within its own borders. UN peacekeeping missions, with their insistence on the establishment of democratic forms of government and governance based on international standards of human rights can also challenge the legitimacy of some regimes.

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Sovereignty initially played a role in the Mali conflict with coup leaders in the country initially reluctant to hand power back to democratic leaders and fearful that the deployment of UN Peacekeepers would force their hand.

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Sovereignty can also undermine the strength of the mandate provided to UN peacekeeping forces. States that adhere to a strict interpretation of sovereignty, particularly China and Russia, are reluctant to provide ‘robust’ mandates to UN peacekeepers for fear that peacekeeping operation will become peace enforcement operations, similar in character to a military intervention. This can sometimes undermine the role of peacekeeping forces in maintaining security in conflict zones and preventing them from using force to protect civilians. 

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Successes of the Mali Mission

Since their deployment in July 2013, The United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) has achieved some success, despite difficulties associated with funding and the provision of adequate forces. Security has been achieved in the North of the country with no significant attacks on the population or UN forces by rebel groups. The provision of security and stability in the North of Mali has also allowed for successful democratic elections to be held in August. Again, no significant incidents were recorded during the elections and up to this point, the transition back to a stable democracy has been a success.

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Despite these initial successes, a long-term commitment will be required to resolve more ingrained problems in Mali such as political corruption, mismanagement, poor governance and nepotism.

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Answer the questions at the end of this chapter by reading the relevant pages on the evolution of UN peacekeeping.